Preface xiii
1 Li-Ion Battery 1
Ruiping Liu
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 History of the Lithium-Ion Battery 1
1.1.2 Basic Structure of Lithium-Ion Battery 1
1.1.3 Working Mechanisms of Lithium-Ion Battery 2
1.1.4 Characteristics of Lithium-Ion Batteries 3
1.2 Cathode Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries 4
1.2.1 Layer-Structured Cathode Materials 4
1.2.2 Spinel-Structured Cathode Materials 7
1.2.3 Olivine-Structured Cathode Materials 9
1.3 Anode Materials for LIBs 9
1.3.1 Intercalation Anode Materials 11
1.3.2 Alloy Anode Materials 13
1.3.3 Conversion Anode Materials 14
1.3.4 Lithium Metal Anode 17
1.4 Electrolyte 19
1.4.1 Liquid Electrolyte 19
1.4.1.1 Lithium Salts 19
1.4.1.2 Organic Solvent 20
1.4.1.3 Functional Additives 22
1.4.2 Solid Electrolyte 23
1.4.2.1 Polymer Electrolyte 25
1.4.2.2 li 3 N and its Derivatives 25
1.4.2.3 Perovskite Solid Electrolyte 26
1.4.2.4 Lisicon 27
1.4.2.5 Nasicon 27
1.4.2.6 Garnet 28
1.4.2.7 Glassy Inorganic Solid Electrolyte 29
1.5 Separators 31
1.5.1 Polyolefin Separator 34
1.5.2 Polymers with High Melting Points for Separators 36
1.5.3 Inorganic Composite Separators 36
1.6 Conclusions and Perspective 38
Acknowledgments 39
References 39
2 LiO 2 Battery 47
Zhijia Zhang, Jun Wang, Shaofei Zhang, Shihao Sun, and Xia Ma
2.1 LiO 2 Battery 47
2.1.1 Introduction 47
2.1.2 Cathode Materials 49
2.1.2.1 Carbon-Based Materials 49
2.1.2.2 Noble Metal-Based Materials 54
2.1.2.3 Non-noble Metal-Based Materials 57
2.1.3 Anode Materials 64
2.1.4 Electrolyte 67
2.1.4.1 Organic Electrolyte 67
2.1.4.2 Quasi-Solid-State Electrolyte 67
2.1.4.3 Solid-State Electrolyte 72
2.1.5 Separator 73
2.1.6 From LiO 2 Batteries to LiAir Batteries 76
2.1.7 Summary and Perspective 76
Acknowledgments 78
References 78
3 LiSulfur Battery 87
Xiaoqun Qi, Fengyi Yang, and Long Qie
3.1 Introduction 87
3.2 Fundamentals 88
3.3 Cathodes 89
3.3.1 S Cathodes 89
3.3.1.1 Physical Confinement 90
3.3.1.2 Physical Blocking 90
3.3.1.3 Polymeric Organosulfur 92
3.3.1.4 Chemical Adsorption and Catalysis 93
3.3.2 Li2S Cathodes 97
3.4 Electrolytes 98
3.4.1 Ether Electrolyte 98
3.4.2 Carbonate-Based 99
3.4.3 Nitrile-Based 100
3.4.4 Sulfones/Sulfoxides-Based 101
3.4.5 Ionic Liquids 105
3.4.6 Polymer/Solid-State Electrolytes 105
3.4.7 Additives 108
3.5 Anodes 109
3.5.1 Li Anodes 109
3.5.2 Carbon Anodes 112
3.5.3 Silicon Anodes 113
3.6 Challenges and Perspectives 113
References 116
4 Na-Ion Battery 125
Xiaochuan Duan, Lei Wang, and Jianmin Ma
4.1 Introduction 125
4.1.1 History of Sodium-Ion Batteries 125
4.1.2 Composition and Working Mechanism of SIBs 126
4.2 Cathode Materials for SIBs 127
4.2.1 Layered Transition Metal Oxide 128
4.2.2 Polyanionic Compounds 130
4.2.3 Hexacyanoferrates 132
4.2.4 Organic Compounds 133
4.3 Anode Materials for SIBs 133
4.3.1 Insertion Anode Materials 134
4.3.1.1 Carbon Materials 134
4.3.1.2 Titanium-Based Oxide 137
4.3.2 Alloyed Anode Materials 138
4.3.3 Conversion-Type Anode Materials 140
4.4 Electrolytes for SIBs 142
4.4.1 Aqueous Electrolytes 144
4.4.2 Organic Electrolytes 144
4.4.3 Solid-State Electrolytes 145
4.4.3.1 Solid Polymer Electrolytes 145
4.4.3.2 Inorganic Solid Electrolytes 146
4.5 Separators for SIBs 147
4.5.1 Glass Fiber Separator 147
4.5.2 Modified Polyolefin Separator 147
4.5.3 Other Separator 148
References 149
5 NaO 2 Battery 153
Haiying Lu, Xianghong Chen, Yu Lei, Feng Xiao, Weiyin Gao, Jiakui Zhang, Sai Zhao, Min Yan, Chenxin Ran, and Jiantie Xu
5.1 Introduction 153
5.2 Fundamental Principles 154
5.3 Cathode Materials 155
5.3.1 Carbon Materials 156
5.3.2 Metals and Their Oxides 164
5.3.2.1 Noble Metals and Their Oxides 164
5.3.2.2 Non-noble Metals and Their Oxides 165
5.3.2.3 Dual Functional Composites 168
5.4 Anode Materials 169
5.4.1 Modification of Na Metal Anode 170
5.4.2 Carbon Materials Modified Na Anode 174
5.4.3 Metal Alloys/Composites/Hybrids 177
5.5 Electrolytes 178
5.5.1 Carbonate-Based Electrolyte 179
5.5.2 Ether-Based Electrolyte 179
5.5.3 DMSO- and ACN-Based Electrolytes 183
5.5.4 Ionic Liquid-Based Electrolyte 185
5.6 Mechanism Studies 189
5.7 Conclusion and Perspectives 192
Acknowledgments 194
References 195
6 Zn-Ion Battery 201
Gaoxue Jiang, Yurong Ren, Xiaobing Huang, and Jianmin Ma
6.1 Introduction 201
6.2 Fundamentals 202
6.3 Cathode Materials 204
6.3.1 Manganese-Based Materials 204
6.3.2 Vanadium-Based Materials 208
6.3.3 Prussian Blue Analogous 210
6.3.4 Other Types of Cathode Materials 212
6.4 Zn Anode 212
6.4.1 Zinc Alloy Anode 214
6.4.2 Surface Modification of Zn Anode 215
6.4.3 Structural Optimization of the Zn Anode 216
6.5 Aqueous Electrolytes 217
6.5.1 Types of Zinc Salts 217
6.5.2 Concentration of Zinc Salt 218
6.5.3 Electrolyte Additives 219
6.6 Challenges and Perspectives 222
References 223
7 ZnAir Battery 229
J. Alberto Blázquez, Aroa R. Mainar, and Elena Iruin
7.1 Introduction 229
7.1.1 MetalAir Batteries 230
7.1.2 History of Zinc-Based Technologies 232
7.1.3 Secondary ZincAir Batteries 233
7.1.3.1 Rechargeability 233
7.1.3.2 Industrial Approximations 234
7.1.3.3 Limitations 234
7.2 Electrolyte System 237
7.2.1 Mechanisms for Zinc Dissolution 237
7.2.2 Strategies for Developing An Optimal Electrolyte System for Secondary ZincAir Batteries 239
7.2.2.1 Additives 239
7.2.2.2 Alternatives to Alkaline Aqueous Electrolyte 240
7.3 Bifunctional Air Electrode 242
7.3.1 Mechanism for Bifunctional Air Electrode 242
7.3.2 Materials for Bifunctional Air Electrode 243
7.3.2.1 Catalysts 243
7.3.2.2 Binder 244
7.3.2.3 Conductive Agents 246
7.3.2.4 Current Collector 246
7.3.3 Electrode Structure 247
7.4 Zinc Anode 247
7.4.1 Zinc Electrode Configuration 247
7.4.2 Materials for Zinc Anode 249
7.4.2.1 Active Material 249
7.4.2.2 Additives 249
7.4.2.3 Gelling Agents and Binders 250
7.4.2.4 Current Collector 251
7.4.3 Zinc Anode Processing 251
7.5 Membranes 252
7.6 Summary and Perspectives 253
Acronyms and Abbreviations 254
References 255
8 Al-Ion Battery 269
David Muñoz-Torrero, Rebeca Marcilla, and Edgar Ventosa
8.1 Introduction 269
8.2 Historical Development of Aluminum Batteries 269
8.2.1 Primary Aluminum Batteries: Aqueous Systems 270
8.2.2 Rechargeable Aluminum Batteries: Non-aqueous Systems 270
8.3 Electrolytes for Al-Based Batteries 272
8.3.1 Al Electrodeposition in CILs and Their Use in Rechargeable Al-Based Batteries 273
8.3.2 Al Electrodeposition Using Alternative Electrolytes and Their Use in Rechargeable Al-Based Batteries 274
8.4 Rechargeable Aluminum Batteries Classification 276
8.4.1 Metal Oxide/Sulfide-Based Aluminum Batteries 276
8.4.2 Polymer-Based Aluminum Batteries 279
8.4.3 Graphite-Based Aluminum Batteries 281
8.5 Rechargeable Aluminum Batteries Based on Graphitic Cathodes 283
8.5.1 Carbon Paper 283
8.5.2 Pyrolytic Graphite 284
8.5.3 Graphitic Foam 286
8.5.4 Graphene-Based Cathode 287
8.5.5 Graphite Flakes-Based Cathodes 290
8.6 Conclusions 291
References 293
9 Al-Air Batteries 299
Pengyu Meng, Jianmin Ren, Min Jiang, and Chaopeng Fu
9.1 Introduction 299
9.2 Aluminum Anodes 300
9.2.1 Al Alloying Elements 300
9.2.2 Research Progress of Al Anodes 301
9.2.2.1 Aluminum Microalloying 301
9.2.2.2 Heat Treatment of Al Anodes 302
9.2.2.3 Processing of Al Anodes 302
9.2.2.4 Surface coating on Al anodes 302
9.3 Air Cathodes 302
9.3.1 Structure of Air Cathodes 303
9.3.2 Integrated Cathode 304
9.3.3 Oxygen Reduction Reaction 304
9.3.4 Electrocatalysts 305
9.3.4.1 Precious Metals and Alloys 305
9.3.4.2 Transition Metal Oxides 306
9.3.4.3 Carbon-Based Catalysts 307
9.3.4.4 Single-Atom Catalysts 308
9.4 Electrolytes 309
9.4.1 Aqueous Electrolytes 309
9.4.2 Corrosion Inhibitors 309
9.4.3 Polymer Electrolytes 310
9.5 AlAir Battery Structure Design 310
9.6 Recycle of AlAir Batteries 312
9.7 Rechargeable AlAir Batteries 312
9.8 Summary and Outlook 315
References 315
10 Dual-Ion Battery 317
Haitao Wang, Luojiang Zhang, and Yongbing Tang
10.1 CationAnion Dual-Ion Battery 317
10.1.1 Introduction 317
10.1.2 Cathode Materials 320
10.1.2.1 Graphitic Materials 320
10.1.2.2 Organic Materials 324
10.1.2.3 Other Materials 326
10.1.3 Anode Materials 327
10.1.3.1 Metallic Materials 328
10.1.3.2 Alloying-Type Materials 330
10.1.3.3 Intercalation-Type Materials 335
10.1.3.4 Conversion-Type Materials 336
10.1.4 Electrolyte 337
10.1.4.1 Organic Electrolyte 338
10.1.4.2 Ionic Liquid Electrolyte 339
10.1.4.3 Aqueous Electrolyte 341
10.2 Multi-Ion Battery 342
10.2.1 Triple-Ion Battery 343
10.2.1.1 Dual CationAnion Battery 343
10.2.1.2 Dual AnionCation Battery 346
10.2.2 Quadruple-Ion Battery 348
10.3 Summary and Perspective 350
Acknowledgments 351
References 351
Index 359
