Contributors List xxxix
Editors Introduction xliii
Contents of the DVD, Including Instructional Videos lvii
A Technical Definition of Mixing 1
Joelle Aubin and Suzanne M. Kresta
Range of Industrial Mixing Applications 2
Three Dimensions of Segregation: A Technical Definition of Mixing 3
Identifying Mixing Problems: Defining the Critical Scales and Process Objectives 5
Notation 9
References 9
1a Residence Time Distributions 11
E. Bruce Nauman
1a-1 Introduction 12
1a-2 Measurements and Distribution Functions
1a-3 Residence Time Models of Flow Systems
1a-4 Uses of Residence Time Distributions
1a-5 Extensions of Residence Time Theory
Nomenclature
References
1b Mean Age Theory for Quantitative Mixing Analysis 15
Minye Liu
1b-1 Introduction 15
1b-2 Age and Time in a Flow System 16
1b-3 Governing Equations of Mean Age and Higher Moments 17
1b-4 Computation of Mean Age 20
1b-5 Relations of Mean Age and Residence Time Distribution 25
1b-6 Variances and the Degree of Mixing 27
1b-7 Mean Age and Concentration in a CFSTR 31
1b-8 Probability Distribution Function of Mean Age 34
1b-9 Future Development of Mean Age Theory 39
Nomenclature 39
Greek Letters 40
References 41
2a Turbulence in Mixing Applications 43
Suzanne M. Kresta and Robert S. Brodkey
2a-1 Introduction 44
2a-2 Background
2a-3 Classical Measures of Turbulence
2a-4 Dynamics and Averages: Reducing the Dimensionality of the Problem
2a-5 Modeling the Turbulent Transport
2a-6 What Have We Learned?
Nomenclature
References
2b Update to Turbulence in Mixing Applications 47
Marcio B. Machado and Suzanne M. Kresta
2b-1 Introduction 47
2b-2 The Velocity Field and Turbulence 48
2b-3 Spectrum of Turbulent Length Scales: Injection of Scalar (Either Reagent or Additive) and the Macro-, Meso-, and Microscales of Mixing 56
2b-4 Turbulence and Mixing of Solids, Liquids, and Gases 65
2b-5 Specifying Mixing Requirements for a Process 66
2b-6 Conclusions 78
Notation 78
Roman Characters 78
Greek Characters 79
References 80
3a Laminar Mixing: A Dynamical Systems Approach 85
Edit S. Szalai, Mario M. Alvarez, and Fernando J. Muzzio
3a-1 Introduction 86
3a-2 Background
3a-3 How to Evaluate Mixing Performance
3a-4 Physics of Chaotic Flows Applied to Laminar Mixing
3a-5 Applications to Physically Realizable Chaotic Flows
3a-6 Reactive Chaotic Flows
3a-7 Summary
3a-8 Conclusions
Nomenclature
References
3b Microstructure, Rheology, and Processing of Complex Fluids 87
Patrick T. Spicer and James F. Gilchrist
3b-1 Introduction 87
3b-2 Literature AnalysisMixing of Complex Fluids 90
3b-3 Common Complex Fluid Rheology Classes and Their Effects 92
3b-4 Conclusions 110
Nomenclature 110
Greek Symbols 111
References 111
4 Experimental Methods
Part A: Measuring Tools and Techniques for Mixing and Flow Visualization Studies 115
David A. R. Brown, Pip N. Jones, and John C. Middleton
4-1 Introduction 117
4-2 Mixing Laboratory
4-3 Power Draw or Torque Measurement
4-4 Single-Phase Blending
4-5 SolidLiquid Mixing
4-6 LiquidLiquid Dispersion
4-7 GasLiquid Mixing
4-8 Other Techniques
Part B: Fundamental Flow Measurement
4-9 Scope of Fundamental Flow Measurement Techniques
4-10 Laser Doppler Anemometry
4-11 Phase Doppler Anemometry
4-12 Particle Image Velocimetry
Nomenclature
References
5a Computational Fluid Mixing 119
Elizabeth Marden Marshall and Andre Bakker
5a-1 Introduction 120
5a-2 Computational Fluid Dynamics
5a-3 Numerical Methods
5a-4 Stirred Tank Modeling Using Experimental Data
5a-5 Stirred Tank Modeling Using the Actual Impeller Geometry
5a-6 Evaluating Mixing from Flow Field Results
5a-7 Applications
5a-8 Closing Remarks
Acknowledgments
Nomenclature
References
5b CFD Modeling of Stirred Tank Reactors 123
Minye Liu
5b-1 Numerical Issues 123
5b-2 Turbulence Models 131
5b-3 Quantitative Predictions 137
5b-4 Modeling Other Physics 142
Nomenclature 144
Greek Letters 144
References 145
6a Mechanically Stirred Vessels 149
Ramesh R. Hemrajani and Gary B. Tatterson
6a-1 Introduction 150
6a-2 Key Design Parameters
6a-3 Flow Characteristics
6a-4 Scale-up
6a-5 Performance Characteristics and Ranges of Application
6a-6 Laminar Mixing in Mechanically Stirred Vessels
Nomenclature
References
6b Flow Patterns and Mixing 153
Suzanne M. Kresta and David S. Dickey
6b-1 Introduction 153
6b-2 Circulation Patterns 154
6b-3 Coupling the Velocity Field with Applications 178
Nomenclature 185
Greek Symbols 185
References 186
6c Vessel Heads: Depths, Volumes, and Areas 189
David S. Dickey, Daniel R. Crookston, and Reid B. Crookston
6c-1 Head Depth 190
6c-2 Head Volume 193
6c-3 Head Area 194
6c-4 Dimensionless Coefficients for Torispherical Heads 195
6c-5 Calculations for Conical Bottoms 197
6c-6 Other Types of Bottoms 199
Nomenclature 199
Dimensional Variables and Parameters 199
Dimensionless Variables and Parameters 199
Dimensionless Greek Symbols 200
References 200
7a Mixing in Pipelines 201
Arthur W. Etchells III and Chris F. Meyer
7a-1 Introduction 202
7a-2 Fluid Dynamic Modes: Flow Regimes
7a-3 Overview of Pipeline Device Options by Flow Regime
7a-4 Applications
7a-5 Blending and Radial Mixing in Pipeline Flow
7a-6 Tee Mixers
7a-7 Static or Motionless Mixing Equipment
7a-8 Static Mixer Design Fundamentals
7a-9 Multiphase Flow in Motionless Mixers and Pipes
7a-10 Transitional Flow
7a-11 Motionless Mixers: Other Considerations
7a-12 In-line Mechanical Mixers
7a-13 Other Process Results
7a-14 Summary and Future Developments
Acknowledgments
Nomenclature
References
7b Update to Mixing in Pipelines 205
Thomas A. Simpson, Michael K. Dawson, and Arthur W. Etchells III
7b-1 Introduction 205
7b-2 Use of CFD with Static Mixers 206
7b-3 Recent Developments in Single-Phase Blending 207
7b-4 Recent Developments in Multiphase Dispersions 222
7b-5 Mixing with Static Mixers When Solids are Present 229
Notation 232
Roman Characters 232
Greek Characters 233
Subscripts 233
References 235
7c Introduction to Micromixers 239
Joelle Aubin and Abraham D. Stroock
7c-1 Introduction 239
7c-2 Mixing and Transport Phenomena 240
7c-3 Micromixer Geometries and Fluid Contacting Mechanisms 241
7c-4 Characterization of Flow and Mixing 244
7c-5 Multiphase Mixing 245
7c-6 Commercial Equipment and Industrial Examples 247
7c-7 Evaluation of the Current and Future Applicability of Microreactors in Industry 250
Notation 251
Suggested Reading 251
References 251
8 RotorStator Mixing Devices 255
Victor Atiemo-Obeng and Richard V. Calabrese
8-1 Introduction 256
8-2 Geometry and Design Configurations
8-3 Hydrodynamics of RotorStator Mixers
8-5 Mechanical Design Considerations
8-6 RotorStator Mixing Equipment Suppliers
Nomenclature
References
9a Blending of Miscible Liquids 259
Richard K. Grenville and Alvin W. Nienow
9a-1 Introduction 260
9a-2 Blending of Newtonian Fluids in the Turbulent and Transitional Regimes
9a-3 Blending of Non-Newtonian, Shear-Thinning Fluids in the Turbulent and Transitional Regimes
9a-4 Blending in the Laminar Regime
9a-5 Jet Mixing in Tanks
Nomenclature
References
9b Laminar Mixing Processes in Stirred Vessels 261
Philippe A. Tanguy, Louis Fradette, Gabriel Ascanio, and Ryuichi Yatomi
9b-1 Introduction 261
9b-2 Laminar Mixing Background 263
9b-3 Rheologically Complex Fluids 266
9b-4 Heat Effects 268
9b-5 Laminar Mixing Equipment 269
9b-6 Key Design Parameters 274
9b-7 Power Number and Power Constant 276
9b-8 Experimental Techniques to Determine Blend Time 282
9b-9 Mixing Efficiency 285
9b-10 Characterization of the Mixing Flow Field 288
9b-11 Hydrodynamic Characterization of Laminar Blending 301
9b-12 Application of Chaos in Mixing 317
9b-13 Selecting an Appropriate Geometry for Generic Applications 328
9b-14 Heat and Mass Transfer in the Laminar Mixing 336
9b-15 Industrial Mixing Process Requirements 338
9b-16 Scale-up Rules in the Laminar Regime 340
9b-17 Mixer Troubleshooting and Engineering Calculations 342
9b-18 Concluding Remarks 347
Acknowledgments 348
References 348
10 SolidLiquid Mixing 357
David A. R. Brown, Arthur W. Etchells III, with sections by Richard K. Grenville, Kevin J. Myers, N. Gul Ozcan-Taskin incorporating sections by Victor A. Atiemo-Obeng, Piero H. Armenante, and W. Roy Penney
10-1 Introduction and Scope 358
10-2 Solid and Liquid Physical Characteristics 364
10-3 Agitation of Sinking or Settling Solids 371
10-4 Incorporation and Dispersion of Floating Solids 416
10-5 Attrition and Particle Damage 425
10-6 Solids Suspension and Distribution Using Liquid Jets 430
10-7 Mass Transfer 431
10-8 Lab and Pilot-Scale Testing 440
Nomenclature 441
Dimensional Variables and Parameters 441
Dimensionless Parameters 442
Greek Symbols 443
References 443
11 GasLiquid Mixing in Turbulent Systems 451
John C. Middleton and John M. Smith
11-1 Introduction 452
11-2 Selection and Configuration of GasLiquid Equipment
11-3 Flow Patterns and Operating Regimes
11-4 Power
11-5 Gas Hold-up or Retained Gas Fraction
11-6 GasLiquid Mass Transfer
11-7 Bubble Size
11-8 Consequences of Scale-up
Nomenclature
References
12 Immiscible LiquidLiquid Systems 457
Douglas E. Leng and Richard V. Calabrese
12-1 Introduction 459
12-2 LiquidLiquid Dispersion
12-3 Drop Coalescence
12-4 Population Balances
12-5 More Concentrated Systems
12-6 Other Considerations
12-7 Equipment Selection for LiquidLiquid Operations
12-8 Scale-up of LiquidLiquid Systems
12-9 Industrial Applications
Nomenclature
References
13a Mixing and Chemical Reactions 465
Gary K. Patterson, Edward L. Paul, Suzanne M. Kresta, and Arthur W. Etchells III
13a-1 Introduction 466
13a-2 Principles of Reactor Design for Mixing-Sensitive Systems
13a-3 Mixing and Transport Effects in Heterogeneous Chemical Reactors
13a-4 Scale-up and Scale-down of Mixing-Sensitive Systems
13a-5 Simulation of Mixing and Chemical Reaction
13a-6 Conclusions
Nomenclature
References
13b Scale-up Using the Bourne Protocol: Reactive Crystallization and Mixing Example 479
Aaron Sarafinas and Cheryl I. Teich
13b-1 Example: Redesigning an Uncontrolled Precipitation to a Reactive Crystallization 479
Goal 479
Issue 479
References 489
14a Heat Transfer 491
W. Roy Penney and Victor A. Atiemo-Obeng
14a-1 Introduction 492
14a-2 Fundamentals
14a-3 Most Cost-Effective Heat Transfer Geometry
14a-4 Heat Transfer Coefficient Correlations
14a-5 Examples
Nomenclature
References
14b Heat Transfer in Stirred TanksUpdate 493
Jose Roberto Nunhez
14b-1 Introduction 493
14b-2 Consideration of Heat Transfer Surfaces used in Mixing Systems 496
14b-3 Heating andCooling of Liquids 506
14b-4 Summary of Proposed Equations Used in Heat Transfer for Stirred Tanks 512
14b-5 Methodology for Design of Heating Mixing System 518
14b-6 Example 518
Acknowledgments 529
Nomenclature 529
Greek Symbols 531
References 531
15 Solids Mixing
Part A: Fundamentals of Solids Mixing 533
Fernando J. Muzzio, Albert Alexander, Chris Goodridge, Elizabeth Shen, and Troy Shinbrot
15-1 Introduction
15-2 Characterization of Powder Mixtures
15-3 Theoretical Treatment of Granular Mixing
15-4 Batch Mixers and Mechanisms
15-6 Conclusions
Part B: Mixing of Particulate Solids in the Process Industries 533
Konanur Manjunath, Shrikant Dhodapkar, and Karl Jacob
15-7 Introduction
15-8 Mixture Characterization and Sampling
15-9 Selection of Batch and Continuous Mixers
15-10 Fundamentals and Mechanics of Mixer Operation
15-11 Continuous Mixing of Solids
15-12 Scale-up and Testing of Mixers
Nomenclature
References
16 Mixing of Highly Viscous Fluids, Polymers, and Pastes 539
the late David B. Todd
16-1 Introduction 539
16-2 Viscous Mixing Fundamentals
16-3 Equipment for Viscous Mixing
16-4 Equipment Selection
16-5 Summary
Nomenclature
References
17 Mixing in the Fine Chemicals and Pharmaceutical Industries 541
Edward L. Paul (retired), Michael Midler, and Yongkui Sun
17-1 Introduction 542
17-2 General Considerations
17-3 Homogeneous Reactions
17-4 Heterogeneous Reactions
17-5 Mixing and Crystallization
References
18 Mixing in the Fermentation and Cell Culture Industries 543
Ashraf Amanullah and Barry C. Buckland, and Alvin W. Nienow
18-1 Introduction 544
18-2 Scale-up/Scale-down of Fermentation Processes
18-3 Polysaccharide Fermentations
18-4 Mycelial Fermentations
18-5 Escherichia coli Fermentations
18-6 Cell Culture
18-7 Plant Cell Cultures
Nomenclature
References
19 Fluid Mixing Technology in the Petroleum Industry 547
Ramesh R. Hemrajani
19-1 Introduction 548
19-2 Shear-Thickening Fluid for Oil Drilling Wells
19-3 Gas Treating for CO2 Reduction
19-4 Homogenization of Water in Crude Oil Transfer Lines
19-5 Sludge Control in Crude Oil Storage Tanks
19-6 Desalting
19-7 Alkylation
19-8 Other Applications
Nomenclature
References
20 Mixing in the Pulp and Paper Industry 551
the late Chad P.J. Bennington
20-1 Introduction 552
20-2 Selected Mixing Applications in Pulp and Paper Processes: Non fibrous Systems
20-3 Pulp Fiber Suspensions
20-4 Scales of Mixing in Pulp Suspensions
20-5 Macroscale Mixing/Pulp Blending Operations
20-6 Mixing in Pulp Bleaching Operations
20-7 Conclusions
Nomenclature
References
21a Mechanical Design of Mixing Equipment 555
David S. Dickey and Julian B. Fasano
21-1 Introduction 556
21-2 Mechanical Features and Components of Mixers
21.3 Motors
21.4 Speed Reducers
21.5 Shaft Seals
21.6 Shaft Design
21.7 Impeller Features and Design
21.8 Tanks and Mixer Supports
21.9 Wetted Materials of Construction
Nomenclature
References
21b Magnetic Drives for Mixers 559
David S. Dickey
22 Role of the Mixing Equipment Supplier 567
Ron Weetman
22-1 Introduction 568
22-2 Vendor Experience
22-3 Options
22-4 Testing
22-5 Mechanical Reliability
22-6 Service
22-7 Key Points
References
23 Commissioning Mixing Equipment 569
David S. Dickey, Eric Janz, Todd Hutchinson, Thomas Dziekonski, Richard O. Kehn, and Kayla Preston and Jay Dinnison
23-1 Introduction 569
23-2 Commissioning Concepts 570
23-3 Instructions for Commissioning 572
23-4 Safety Instructions 573
23-5 Receiving the Equipment 575
23-6 Kinds of Storage 578
23-7 Installation 582
23-8 Lubrication 590
23-9 Wiring 594
23-10 Initial Operation 595
23-11 Troubleshooting 597
23-12 Maintenance 597
23-13 Commissioning Shaft Seals 597
23-14 Mechanical Checkout, Startup, and Troubleshooting of Agitator Equipment 609
23-15 Summary 639
Nomenclature 639
Greek Symbols 640
References 640
24 Mixing Safety 641
Gord Winkel and David S. Dickey
24-1 Introduction 641
24-2 The Practice of Risk Management 642
24-3 Summary Comments on Mixing Safety 661
References 663
25 Mixing Issues in Crystallization and Precipitation Operations 665
Alvin W. Nienow and Edward L. Paul
25-1 Introduction 665
25-2 Basic Crystallization Concepts 667
25-3 Impact of Mixing on Primary Heterogeneous Nucleation 673
25-4 Impact of Mixing on Secondary Nucleation 678
25-5 Impact of Mixing on Crystal Growth and Dissolution Rates 684
25-6 Selecting Operating Conditions to Optimize Crystal Suspension and Withdrawal 687
25-7 Damkoehler Number for Nucleation and Subsurface Feeding of Reactants 695
25-8 Stirred Vessel Crystallizers 700
25-9 Other Types of Equipment 704
25-10 Precipitation 706
25-11 Agglomeration and Oiling Out 712
25-12 Conclusions 714
Nomenclature 716
Greek Symbols 717
Subscripts 718
References 718
Appendices 722
26 Mixing in the Water and Wastewater Industry 729
Michael K. Dawson
26-1 Introduction 729
26-2 Mixing in Drinking Water Treatment 735
26-3 Mixing in Wastewater Treatment 758
26-4 Mixing in Sludge Treatment 765
26-5 Conclusions 775
Nomenclature 775
Greek Symbols 776
References 777
27 Mixing in the Food Industry 783
P. J. Cullen, Wesley Twombly, Robin Kay Connelly, and David S. Dickey
27-1 Introduction 783
27-2 Building or Reducing Texture Through Mixing 784
27-3 Role of Mixing in Food Treatment 796
27-4 Food Homogeneity 802
27-5 Advances in the Science of Food Mixing 803
27-6 Other Food Mixers 803
27-7 Typical Food Groups 818
Nomenclature 823
Greek Symbols 823
References 823
28 Mixing and Processes Validation in the Pharmaceutical Industry 827
Otute Akiti and Piero M. Armenante
28-1 Introduction 827
28-2 Validation in Pharmaceutical Industry 828
28-3 Pharmaceutical Processes and Role of Mixing in Pharmaceutical Production 836
28-4 Examples of Process Validation in Pharmaceutical Industry 852
28-5 Example of Process Validation for API Manufacturing: Manufacturing of EX123 API 852
28-6 Example of Process Validation for Drug Product Manufacturing: Manufacturing of EX123 Drug Product 864
Verification 884
Acknowledgment 885
References 885
Index 891
